 Gen info
- Limonia acidissima is the only species within the monotypic genus Limonia. English common names include wood apple, elephant apple and monkey fruit.
- In India, the fruit was traditionally referred to as a "poor man's food" until processing techniques were developed in the mid-50s. (3)
Botany
• Feronia elephantum is a tree growing 3-4 meters high. Leaves are fragrant, opposite, odd-pinnate. Leaflets are in two pairs, lanceolate, entire, and glabrous. Common petiole flattened above. Flowers are terminal, white, racemose, with 2 flattened peduncles. Calyx inferior, with 5-6 divisions. Corolla with 5-6 petals. Anthers oval. Ovary oblong, 5-lobuled. Style short, caducous. Stigma, spindle-shaped. Ovules numerous, compressed, in several series. Fruit pulpy, globose, with a woody rind, with one compartment and many compressed, oblong seeds. (2)
 • Deciduous trees, to 20 m high, bark dark-grey or black, deeply cracked longitudinally; thorns straight, to 2.5 cm, axillary. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, 1-3 in a cluster, estipulate; rachis 60-80 mm long, stout, glabrous, often narrowly winged; leaflets 4-7, opposite, sessile, estipellate; lamina 1.3-3.8 × 1.3 cm, obovate, base cuneate or acute, apex obtuse, margin entire, glabrous, pellucid-punctate, coriaceous; lateral nerves pinnate, obscure, intercostae obscure. Flowers polygamous, dull red, 1.3 cm across, in axillary cymes; calyx small, flat, 5- toothed, pubescent without, deciduous; petals 5, free, spreading; stamens 10-12, inserted round the disc; filaments dilated below, villous on face and margins; anthers linear-oblong; disc thick, annular, pubescent; pistillode short; ovary superior, oblong, 5-6-celled, at length 1- celled, ovules many; stigma oblong, fusiform. Fruit a berry, 5-7.6 cm across, globose, whitish-brown, rind hard and woody; seeds many. (Dr N Sasidharan) (54)
Distribution
- Mountains of Angat and woods of Catugan, Iloilo. (2)
- Common in the wild in dry plains of India and Ceylon.
- Cultivated along roads, fields, and orchards.
- Native to Andaman Is., Assam, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
. (1)
 Constituents
- Nutrition data per 100 g of edible (ripe) pulp and seeds: moisture 74.0% and 4.0%, protein 8.00% and 26.18%, fat 1.45% and 27%, carbohydrates 7.45% and 35.49%, ash 5.0% and 5.03%, calcium 0.17% and 1.58%, phosphorus 0.08% and 1.43%, iron 0.07% and 09.03%, and tannins 1.03% and 0.08%. The pulp represents 36% of the whole fruit. Pulp contains 3 to 5% pectiin (16% yield on dry weight basis). Seed yields a bland, non-bitter oil high in unsaturated fatty acids. (3)
- Gum consists of 35.5% arabinose and xylose, 42.7% d-galactose, and traces of rhamnose and glucuronic acid. (3)
- Heartwood yields ursolic acid and a flavanone glycoside, 7-methylporiol-b-D-xylopyranosyl-D-glucopyranoside. (3)
- Unripe fruits contain 0.015% stigmasterol. Leaves contain 0.012% stigmasterol and 0.01% bergapten. Bark contains 0.016% marmesin. Root bark contains aurapten, bergapten, isopimpinellin. (3)
- GC-MS study of essential oil yielded 23 compounds accounting for 83.87%. The major component was oxygenated sesquiterpene, caryophyllene oxide (62.29%), followed by caryophyllene (6.05%), aromadendrene (3.58%), humulene epoxide II (3.00%), phytol (1.21%) and α-copaene (1.03%). (see study below) (5)
- GC-MS analysis of ethanol extract of leaves and bark yielded
18 and 14 compounds, respectively. Dominant compounds in the leaves extract were 7-Norbornadienyl t-butyl ether (17.26%), 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-1-heptanol (11.40%), 1-octanol,2-butyl (8.47%), phenol 4-[2-{dimethylamino}-ethyl] (4.56%), 2,3-dimethylquinolin-4(1H)-one (3.58%), ethyl iso-allocholate (1.63%). Ethanol extract of bark yielded 2-propenenitrile, 3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) (60.72%), phenol 4-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxy (9.35%), 3-{2-N-acetyyl-N-methylaminethyl)indol (1.15%). chooesta-8,24-dine-3-ol, 4-methyl-(3a'-4a') (0.86%) as major components. (8)
 - GC and GC-MS study for essential oil yielded 24 constituents, of which
18 were identified. Trans-anethole (57.73%) and methyl chavicol (37.48%) were the major compounds, while cis-anethole, p-anisaldehyde, (E)-jasmone, methyl eugenol, ß-caryophyllene, linalool and (E)-methyl isoeugenol were identified as minor components. (9)
- Preliminary phytochemical analysis of Limonia acidissima plant parts i.e., bark, leaf, rind, pulp, and seed showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, glycosides, phenols, gum and mucilage, fixed oils and fats, resins and tannins. The pulp showed the highest amount of protein while carbohydrate content was more in seeds, and the rind was rich in amino acid. (23)
- Study of Feronia limonia fruit pulp isolated a flavonoid, luteolin, with a molecular formula of 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one. (25)
- Study isolated a monoterpenoid furanocoumarin lactone, fernolin, along with aurapten, marmesin, bergapten, and xanthotoxin from the roots of Feronia limonia. (36)
- Study of air dried, powdered and defatted fruit material of F. limonia isolated and elucidated a flavone glycoside:: 5,4-dihydroxy-3-(3-methyl-but-2-enyl) 3,5,6-trimethoxy-flavone-7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside. (38)
- GC and GC-MMS study of leaf essential oil yielded 51 compounds. Major constituents were estragole (34.69%) and ß-pinene (23.59%), followed by methyl (Z)-caryophyllene (11.05%), eugenol (6.50%), linalool (3.97%), phytol (3.27%), sabinene (2.41%), and limonene (2.27%) (see study below) (39)
- Study of Feronia limonia flowers isolated a new quinoline alkaloid, along with four alkaloid precursors, one coumarin, a known steroid stigmasterol and p-coumaric acid. (51)
- Study of roots and leaves yielded a flavonoid characterized as 5-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-7-methoxy-6-(3-methoxybut-2-enyl)chroman-4-one, along with known imperatorin, bergapten, and xanthotoxin. (52)
- Qualitative phytochemical screening of aqueous, methanolic and ethanolic extracts of fruit pulp revealed diverse secondary metabollites viz. tannins, saponin, flavonoids, phenolic compoounds, reducing sugars, alkaloids, with absence of terpenoids and steroids.
(56)
- Study for mineral and vitamin content of fruit pulp (µg/g) yielded: Minerals: P 1,137.35, Mg 852.5, Ca 711.8, Fe 23, Zn 23.84, Cu 6.67, Mn 3.64, Sb 0.626, As ND, Be ND, Cd ND, Cr 1.543, Co ND, Pb 0.163, Li 0.241, Mo 0.263, Ni 0.819, Se 0.768, Sr ND, Tl 1.930, Ti 0.257, Sn 0.474. Vitamins (µg/g): Vitamin C 180, Riboflavin (B2) 0.23, Thiamine (B1) 0.31, Beta-carotene 0.04. (56)
-
Study of leaves for nutrient composition yielded (% concentration ): ash 4.20, fiber 7.25, fat content 3.30, moisture 58.605, protein 7.35, carbohydrate 19.4955. Phytochemical screening of aqueous extract of leaves yielded alkaloid +, flavonoid ++, saponin +, cardiac glycoside +, steroid +, phenols +, terpenoids +, and proteins +, with absence of tannin and resins. (67)
- Study of bark isolated three new benzamide derivatives, N-{[p-(3,7-dimethyl-6R,7-dihydroxy-4R-octadecanoyloxy-2-octenyloxy)phenyl]ethyl} benzamide (1), N-{[p-(3,7-dimethyl-6R,7-dihydroxy-4R-9′′′(E)-octadecenoyloxy-2-octenyloxy)phenyl]ethyl} benzamide (2), and N-{[p-(3,7-dimethyl-6R,7-epoxy-4R-9′′′(E)-octadecenoyloxy-2-octenyloxy)phenyl]ethyl} benzamide (3), together with 10 known compounds (4–13). (see study below) (70)
Properties
- The tree is grown from seeds and will not bear fruit until at least 15 years old. (3)
- Ripe fruit considered refrigerant, astringent, cardiac and general tonic. (2)
- Studies have suggested antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, mosquito larvicidal, antifungal, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antiulcerogenic, wound healing, antispermatogenic, antisteroidogenic, muscle relaxant,
anticancer, anti-mycobacterial. anti-corrosion, wound healing, biosorbent, antiproliferative, diuretic, anthelmintic, learning and memory enhancing, NO production inhibitory, neuro-modulatory, relaxant, antiasthmatic, insecticidal, repellent, larvicidal, mosquitocidal, anti-Dengue, anti-hyperuricemic properties.
Parts used
Fruit, leaves, rind.
 Uses
Edibility
- Fruit pulp of ripe fruit is edible.
-
Rind is hard and cracked with a hammer. The scooped-out pulp is sticky, and eaten raw with or without sugar, or blended with coconut milk and palm-sugar syrup and drunk as beverage, or frozen and eaten as ice cream. (3)
- Fruits used for making preserves and chutney.
Folkloric
- In India, the green fruit is used as astringent in diarrhea and dysentery. Decoction of tender leaves, with the agreeable aroma of anise, used as stomachic and carminative. (2) In Indian system of medicine, used for treatment of diabetes. (4)
-
Ripe fruit is given for diseases of the gums and as a gargle. Also used for treatment of salivation and ulcers of the throat. Fruit pulp or pulverized bark used locally for bites of venomous animals. (2)
- In India, fruit used as a liver and cardiac tonic. Unripe fruit used for treatment of hiccups, sore throat, and diseases of the gums. (3)
- Juice of young leaves mixed with milk and sugar candy as remedy for biliousness and intestinal problems in children. Powdered gum mixed with honey used for dysentery and diarrhea in children. Leaf decoction used as digestive aid in children. (3)
- Oil from crushed leaved applied to itches. Leaves, bark, roots, and fruit pulp used for snakebites. (3)
- In Indian folk medicine, used for treatment of blood impurities, leucorrhea, and as diuretic and liver tonic. (7)
- In southern India, fruit pulp used to induced sterility in men. (20)
- In the rural population of Silakhana village in Bagerhat district of Bangladesh, juice from macerated leaves used for dysentery and other bowel problems. (47)
- Used for preventing and treating scurvy and relieving flatulence. Mashed pulp of raw fruit used for dysentery, diarrhea, and piles.
- Poultice of fruit pup and powdered rind applied to bites and stings of venomous insects. Fruit is part of herbal paste formula used for toning the breasts. Leaf oil mixed with milk and sugar for treatment of indigestion, flatulence, diarrhea, dysentery and hemorrhoids. Powdered gum, mixed with honey, drunk by children to treat dysentery and diarrhea. Infusion of crushed spines mixed with other plants used a remedy for menorrhagia. Bark chewed with Barringtonia applied to venomous wounds. (54)
Others
-
Gum: Trunk yields a gum that has been used in India as a substitute for gum arabic. The gum exists as irregular and semitransparent pieces, brownish-red, and with water forms an adhesive mucilage. (2) The gum is used as substitute or adulterant of gum arabic; also used for making artist's watercolors, inks, dyes, and varnish. (3)
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Rind: Fruit shell is made into snuffboxes and other small containers. (3)
-
Ethnoveterinary: In Bundelkhand, India, ground fresh leaves used by rural farmers for treatment of intestinal worms in cattle. (41)
- Face cream: In Myanmar, wood is used to make the distinctive local face cream thanaka.
- Biosorbent: Waste fruit shell of L. acidissima is used as biosorbent. (see study below) (55)
Studies
• Antidiabetic / Fruit: Study evaluated the in-vivo hypoglycemic and antidiabetic potential of methanolic extract of fruit pulp of F. elephantum in glucose loaded animals and alloxan induced diabetic animals. In both models, there was reduction of blood glucose level. The hypoglycemic/antidiabetic activity was significant but of less potency than standard metformin. (4) Study showed oral administration of 250mg/kbw of 95% ethanolic extract of unripe fruits significantly lowered blood glucose levels of fasted, fed and STZ-induced diabetic male albino rats. Histological studies showed marked degranulation in ß-cells of extract treated rats. Lowering of blood glucose was attributed probably to stimulation of insulin secretagogue activity. (7)
• Antioxidant / Cytotoxic / Essential Oil: Study evaluated the composition, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and DNA fragmentation activities of F. elephantum essential oil. GC-MS analysis yielded 24 compounds with caryophyllene oxide (62.29%) as dominant compound. The EO showed considerable antioxidant activity by DPPH free radical, OH radical scavenging, metal chelating and prevention of deoxyribose degradation. Cytotoxicity and DNA fragmentation activities were analyzed against breast cancer cells (MCF-7). The antioxidant and cytotoxic activities may be due to the major compound, caryophyllene oxide. (see constituents above) (5)
• Antiulcerogenic / Indomethacin-IInduced Gastric Ulcer / Fruit Pulp / Leaf and Bark: Study evaluated F. elephantum fruit pulp extract against indomethacin induced gastric ulcer in rats. Measured parameters were pH and acid concentration of gastric contents, and ulcer index. Results showed antiulcer activity, but not as potent as ranitidine. Acute toxicity study at dose range of 250-5000 mg/kg showed no mortality. Results showed potent antiulcer activity with ow toxicity. Activity was probably via reduction in gastric acid secretion. (6) Study evaluated the gastroprotective effect of F. elephantum leaves and bark in a model of NSAID (indomethacin)-induced ulcer in rats. Pretreatment with extract significantly decreased the ulcerated area, decreased volume and acidity of gastric juice. (14)
• Antimicrobial / Fruit: Study evaluated various extracts of fruit pulp of Feronia limonia for secondary metabolites and antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi by well diffusion method. Phytochemical screening yielded alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, triterpenoids, saponins, and glycosides. Among all extracts, the methanol extract showed highest sensitivity. (10)
• Antimicrobial / Leaf Essential Oil: GC and GC-MS analysis of leaves for essential oil yielded 33 compounds representing 92.6% of the total oil. Main constituents were ß-pinene (28.4%), Z-anethole (22.1%), methyl chavicol (12.0%), and E-anethole (8.1%). The oil was tested against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and fungi. The oil showed activity against Micrococcus luteus (gram+), proteus mirabilis (gram-), and fungi Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus niger. (11)
• Analgesic / Leaves: Study evaluated the analgesic activity of crude extract of leaves using acetic acid induced writhing model of pain in mice. Crude extract of leaves of F. limonia produced 23.74% and 45.32% writhing inhibition in mice at oral doses of 250 and 500 mg/kbw in mice, respectively. Diclofenac sodium showed 50.46% inhibition at dose of 25 mg/kbw. (12) Study evaluated chloroform and ethanol extracts of Feronia limonia powdered leaves for analgesic activity. Peripheral analgesic activity was evaluated by acetic acid induced writhing in mice while central activity was evaluated using Eddy's hot plate method. Results showed significant activity as evidenced by decreased writhing movements in acetic acid induced writhing test and significantly increased reaction time in hot plate test. (28)
• Silver Nanoparticles / Adulticidal Against Vectors / Leaves: Study evaluated the adulticidal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized using Feronia elephantum leaf extract against adults of Anopheles stephensis, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus. Considerable mortality was evident after treatment of F. elephantum for all three vector es. The synthesized AgNPs were highly toxic compared to crude leaf aqueous extract. Results suggest the leaf aqueous extracts of F. elephantum and green synthesis of AgNPs have potential use for eco-friendly control of the three mosquito vectors. (13)
• Hepatoprotective / Thioacetamide Induced Liver Necrosis / Leaves: Study evaluated the hepatoprotective effects of F. elephantum against thioacetamide (TA) induced liver necrosis in diabetic male wistar rats. Liver necrosis was measured in terms of mortality, liver volume, liver weight, AST, ALT, and histopathologal signs of necrosis and inflammation. Results showed improvement in liver function parameters without change in liver weight, volume, and serum glucose levels. (15)
• Hypoglycemic activity / Leaves: Study evaluated the hypoglycemic activity of aqueous leaf extract of Limonia elephantum in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Results showed statistically significant hypoglycemic effect with an oral dose of 1,000 mg/kg, comparable to metformin at 1.5 mg/kg. (16)
• Cosmetic Potential / Leaves: Study reports on the potential of Limonia acidissima in cosmetics The essential oil of leaves have shown antibacterial activity, attributed to carvacrol and cyclodecandine constituents. Antifungal and antibacterial activity is attributed to psoralene. The pulp has shown high moisture content. Phytoconstituents include saponins, flavonoids, amino acids, beta carotene, tannins, carbohydrates, vitamin B and triterpene. Taken together, L. acidissima shows potential for use in cosmetic products. (17)
• Wound Healing / Antioxidant / Fruit Pulp: Study evaluated the wound healing activity of methanol extract of fruit pulp of Limonia acidissima in incision, excision, and dead-space wound models in albino rats. Results showed increased wound breaking strength, decreased epithelization period, increased wound contraction, increased granulation tissue weight and hydroxyproline concentration. Also, increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, i.e., higher SOD and catalase levels were observed in the extract treated groups. Wound healing activity was statistically significant (p<0.001) in animals treated with 400 mg/kg of extract. (19)
• Reversible Antispermatogenic / Antisteroidogenic / Fruit Pulp: Study evaluated the antispermatogenic and testicular antisteroidogenic activities of fruit pulp of Feronia limonia in Wistar male albino rats. Results showed testes, epididymides and seminal vesicles were significantly (p<0.01) reduced, effects which were associated with a decline in epididymal sperm count, motility, viability and increased percentage of abnormal sperm. Also, at 400 mg/kbw then fruit pulp markedly reduced epididymal and testicular protein,, G6PD, and hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase, along with elevation in testicular testosterone and ascorbic acid content. Results suggest reversible antispermatogenic and antisteroidogenic properties, partially supporting its traditional use as male contraceptive. (20)
• Mosquito Larvicidal / Dried Leaves: Bioassay guided fractionation of an acetone extract of Feronia limonia dried leaves yielded a potent mosquito larvicide, n-hexadecanoic acid, which was found effective against fourth instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus, Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti, with LC50s of 129.24, 79.58, and 57.23 ppm, respectively. (21)
• Hepatoprotective / Cytotoxicity / Leaves: Study evaluated the cytotoxicity and hepatoprotective potentials of extracts, fractions and isolated compound from leaves of Feronia limonia against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. A methanol extract was found to be non toxic and hepatoprotective in nature as compared with the petroleum ether extract. (22)
• Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated Limonia acidissima plant parts for phytochemical constituents. The methanolic extract of plant parts were tested against E. coli and S. aureus using disc diffusion method. The extracts from different plant parts showed varying degrees of antimicrobial activity. (see constituents above) (23)
• Muscle Relaxant / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated the muscle relaxant and antibacterial properties of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of leaves of Feronia limonia in mice. Using rotarod method and actophotometer method, the extracts showed significant reduction in muscle coordination, with the ethanolic extract exhibiting better activity compared to the aqueous extract. The extracts showed activity against four bacterial test strains i.e. gram negative P. aeruginosa and E. coli and gram positive S. aureus and S. faecalis. (24)
• Anti-Corrosion / Leaves: Mild steel used as structural material for pipes, tanks, etc. invariably corrodes when in contact with various solvents. Feronia elephantum leaf extract has been shown to be an eco-friendly corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1 M H2SO4 and 1 M HCl solutions. The protective efficiency is suggestive of physical adsorption mechanism. Results confirm the formation of a protective layer by F. elephantum leaf extract over mild steel surface. (26)
• Antitumor / Pectin Polysaccharide: Study isolated an acidic heteropolysaccharide from F. limonia. A partially carboxylated a-(1-4) polygalacturonan backbone structure with 2- and 2,4-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl, 2- and 2,3-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl and 3-,2,4- and terminal α-D-galactopyranosyl bearing side chains was tentatively assigned. Preliminary study in a murine model showed significant in-vivo Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cell growth inhibition. (27)
.23 ppm, respectively. (21)
• Hepatoprotective / CCl4-Induced Toxicity / Stem Bark and Roots: Study evaluated the hepatoprotective activity of F. elephantum stem bark and roots against carbon tetrachloride induced hepatic damage in rats in measures of liver enzymes and biochemical parameters and histopathological examination. Results showed potent hepatoprotective activity. Phytochemical screening yielded various constituents including glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenols, which may be responsible for the hepatoprotective activity. (29)
• Neuroprotective / Ischemia Reperfusion Injury: Study evaluated the neuroprotective activity of Feronia limonia on ischemia-reperfusion induced brain injury in rats using neurobehavioral tests such as neurodeficit score, rota rod test, hanging wire test beam walk test and elevated plus maze, along with biochemical parameters. Results showed statistically significant improvement in the neurobehavioral parameters such as motor performance, along with significant reduction in total nitrite (p<0.01) and lipid peroxidation (p<0.01), and significantly enhanced activity of enzymatic antioxidants such as catalase and SOD. (30)
• Antidiarrheal / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated the antibacterial and antidiarrheal potential of ethanol extracts of F. limonia leaves. The extract showed moderate antibacterial activity against gram-positive Staphylococcus saprophyticus and S. pyogenes and gram-negative E. coli, Shigella boydii, S. dysenteriae and S. flexneri in a dose-dependent manner. On castor-oil induced diarrhea model in mice, extract significantly reduced the severity and frequency of diarrhea. Loperamide was used as standard. (31)
• Antidiabetic / α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity / Fruit: / Leaves: Study evaluated the in-vitro antidiabetic activity of aqueous and methanolic extracts of F. elephantum fruits and Paspalum scrobiculatum grains using α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme inhibition assays. All the extracts exhibited dose-dependent inhibitory activity against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes with IC50 values comparable to acarbose, a marketed antidiabetic drug. (32)
• Ferolactone / Furanocoumarin / Antihepatotoxic / Fruit: Study pf F. limonia fruit yielded a new furanocoumarin, ferolactone. Ferolactone exhibited significant antihepatotoxic activity by reducing the levels of serum enzymes SGOY, SGPT,, alkaline phosphatase, along with increase total protein against CCl4-induced toxicity in albino wistar rats. Histopathological exam of the liver showed significant recovery of liver hepatocytes in ferolactone-treated animals. (33)
• Antioxidant Potential / Amino Acid Analysis / Fruit: Study evaluated Limonia acidissima fruit for antioxidant activity, free radical scavenging activity, and amino acid content using invitro assay models. The highest percentage of phenol and flavonoid contents were found in the methanol extract, the lowest in the chloroform extract. The methanol extract also exhibited higher activity in DPPH, HRSA, FRAP and TAA, while the ethyl acetate extract was active for ABTS radical scavenging activity. The water extract showed higher NO radical scavenging activity than other solvent extracts. Phenolic and flavonoid contents correlated with antioxidant capacity. Amino acid analysis revealed that among all essential amino acids, isoleucine, phenylalanine and tryptophan were present in higher amounts. Results suggest enormous health benefits and potential uses in food and pharmaceutical applications. (34)
• Use of Fruit Powder for Herbal Biscuits: Study evaluated the use of L. acidissima fruit powder for fortification of wheat flour used for making phenolic enriched herbal biscuits. Study showed the herbal biscuits developed with fortified L. acidissima fruit powder showed great antioxidant activity. (35)
• Antidiabetic / Bark: Study evaluated the antidiabetic activity of hydroalcoholic extract of bark of Feronia limonia on alloxan induced rats. Glibencladmie was used as reference drug. The bark extract yielded flavonoids and phenols. Results showed the bark extract was efficacious in reducing blood glucose and lipid levels. (37)
• Mosquito Larvicidal / Leaf Essential Oil: Study evaluated the leaf essential oil of Feronia limonia for chemical constituents and mosquito larvicidal activity against larvae of Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus. GC and GC-MS analysis of essential oil yielded 51 compounds. The essential oil showed remarkable larvicidal activity. Results suggest a potential new source of larvicide for control of vector mosquitoes. (see constituents above) (39)
• Anticancer / Human Breast Cancer Cell Lines / Fruit: Study evaluated the anticancer activity of Limonia acidissima fruit extract against breast cancer cell lines, SKBR3 and MDA MB435. Fraction3 of the ethanol extract showed anticancer activity against SKBR3 and MDA-MB435 human breast cancer cell. The extract significantly reduced cell proliferation in both cancer cell lines. Fraction 3 induced accumulation of cells in G2/M phase in MDA-MB435 cells. Results showed the extract fraction could induce cell cycle arrest. However, molecular mechanisms need further elucidation. (40)
• Dermatological Properties / Antibacterial and Skin Whitening / Bark: Study evaluated the invivo antistaphylococcal activity of Feronia limonia bark extracts (petroleum ether, ethanol and water crude extracts). Healing potential was evaluated on Staphylococcus aureus induced excision type cutaneous wounds in guinea pigs. All extracts showed similar healing effects on different doses. Pet-ether and ethanol extracts were applied on sun rays induced hyperpigmented skin. Results showed a whitening effect, although lower than that of control, kojic acid. Two compounds were isolated from the chloroform extract, bergapten and marmesin. (42)
• Hepatoprotective / Paracetamol Toxicity / Leaves: Study of a methanol extract of leaves showed significant dose dependent hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol induced toxicity in rats as evidenced by return of affected hepatic biochemical markers to near normal levels. (43)
• Anti-Inflammatory / Toxicity Studies / Fruits: Study evaluated the methanol extract of Feronia limonia fruits for anti-inflammatory activity using invivo and invitro methods in rats. Invivo, the ME significantly inhibited edema induced by carrageenan in rats; in vitro, on thermally induced protein denaturation, the ME exhibited significant protein denaturation. There was no toxicity with tested doses. (44)
• Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles / Potential Against M. Tuberculosis / Leaves: Study reports on the green, eco-friendly , inexpensive synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using L. acidissima aqueous extract of leaves. The ZnONPs was shown to control the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and presents potential as a novel medicine ingredient to combat tuberculosis disease. (45)
• Value Added Products by Enzyme Liquefaction of Fruits: Study reports on the enzymatic liquefaction of wood apple pulp using four enzymes cellulase, hemicellulase, pectinases and xylases. on parameters of time, temperature, concentration and enzyme pH, The combination of enzymes and optimum conditions of the parameters resulted in more juice yield. Novel value added products were prepared like instant ketchup mix, squash mix, and fruit bars. (46)
• Antidermatophytic / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study evaluated the antidermatophytic and antibacterial activity of ethanolic leaves extract of Limonia acidissima. Results showed broad spectrum of activity against fungi and bacteria viz., Trichophyton rubrum, T. tonsurans, T. mentagrophytes, Microsporum gypseum, Candida albicans and Bacillus subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. (48)
• Multi-Purpose Herbal Scrub Gel Formulation / Fruit: Study evaluated a multi-purpose herbal scrub incorporated into a gel for cosmetic uses. Limonia acidissima contains four times more vitamin C than other citrus fruit, along with beta-carotene, vitamins A and B, with potential benefit as anti-aging, anti-wrinkle, natural exfoliating, skin lightening properties. (49)
• Cardioprotective Against Isoproterenol Induced Myocardial Ischemia / Fruit: Study evaluated the cardioprotective activity of ethanolic fruit extract of L. acidissima against isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction in rats assessed by cardiac marker enzymes. Results showed dose dependent cardioprotective effect as evidenced by significantly decreased cardiac marker enzymes and increased antioxidant enzymes. The activity was attributed to its antioxidant property. (50)
• Biosorbent / Removal of Methylene Blue / Waste Fruit Shell: Study evaluated the use of waste fruit shell of L. acidissima as biosorbent for the removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution. Results showed the removal of dye by chemically treated material was more effective than raw material at higher temperature. Percentage removal was maximum at 35°C for treated material and 25°C for raw material. (55)
• Antidiabetic / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated antidiabetic and antioxidant activities of methanolic extract of L. acidissima (MELA) leaves in male Wistar rats induced with alloxan. Results showed mean random blood sugar reduction, significant decrease in median MDA, increase in median SOD, and reduced glutathione levels (all p values <0.0001). Groups VI and V demonstrated regeneration of necrotic ß-cells in the islets. Results suggest MELA possesses dose-dependent significant antidiabetic and antioxidant activity. (58)
• Anti-Tumor / Dalton's Ascitic Lymphoma / Fruits: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of L. acidissima fruits orally at dose of 570 mg/kg against a mice model of Dalton's Ascitic Lymphoma (DAL). Results showed significant antitumor activity against DAL induced tumor genesis in mice. The antitumor effect can be attributed to its cytotoxic and antioxidant properties, and possibly to flavonoids and coumarins content. As expected 5-FU showed more significant antitumor activity than LAME fruits. (59)
• Anti-Ulcer / Ethanol-Induced / Leaves: Study evaluated the anti-ulcer activity of ethanolic leaf extract of L. acidissima in ethanol-induced GIT damage in albino rats. Lyophilized extract was given by oral gavages in doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg. Pretreatment with extract significantly decreased the ulcerated area. L acidissima was able to decrease acidity and increase the mucosal defense in the gastric areas, justifying its use as an anti-ulcerogenic agent. (60)
• Diuretic -Ulcer / Ethanol-Induced / Leaves: Study evaluated the methanolic extracts of L. acidissima obtained by MAE (microwaves assisted extraction) and BSE (Bath Sonicator extraction). Activity was assessed with dose of 200 mg/kg orally in rats, with furosemide as standard drug. The BSE extract produced significant increase (p<0.001) in urine output at the same dose. MAE extract showed increase urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions. Results support the traditional use of Limonia acidissima leaves as diuretic agent, with results by BSE similar to that traditional extraction (maceration) without heating. (61)
• Gold Nanoparticles / Antibacterial / Wound Healing / Cytotoxicity / Leaves: Study reports on the green sand eco-friendly synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPOs) using aqueous leaf extract of L. acidissima as capping agent and evaluated their antibacterial and wound healing properties. The synthesized AuNPs showed maximum antibacterial activity against E. coli with inhibitory zone of 19 mm. The AuNPs also induced significant cytotoxicity against L929 cell lines. A cell migration assay showed no toxicity. (62)
• Antiproliferative / Human Breast Cancer Cell Lines / Fruits: Study evaluated the anticancer effect of L. acidissima fruit extract. Fraction 3 from bioassays of extracts from L. acidissima showed anticancer effect on SKBR3 and MDA-MB-435 human breast cancer cells. After 48 h exposure, F3 at concentration of 100 µg/ml significantly reduced cell proliferation in both cancer cells. in MDA-MB-435 cells, cell cycle analysis showed F3 induced accumulation of cells in G2/M phase. Further study was suggested to assess the molecular mechanism that mediated the anticancer activities. (63)
• Immunomodulatory / Pulp: Study evaluated the in vitro immunomodulatory of methanolic extract from dried powdered pulp from L. acidissima by different assays: in-vitro phagocytic assay, proliferation of splenocytes by inducing with mitogen, and cellular lysosomal enzyme activity assay. The ME enhanced NBT reduction, activated lysosomal enzyme activity, and enhanced proliferation. Results suggest the ME extract of L. acidissima pulp possess significant immunomodulatory activity in-vitro and has potential as a good source of immunomodulator and possible pharmaceutical supplement. (64)
• Antioxidant / Anti-Inflammatory / Anticancer / Fruits: Anti-inflammatory evaluation of aqueous extract of fruit pulp by inhibition of albumin denaturation showed 74.55% protein denaturation inhibition which was compared with standard Diclofenac sodium. Antioxidant capacity was expressed as mg/100g ascorbic acid equivalent through phosphomolybdenum assay showed dose dependent increase in antioxidant activity. On cytotoxicity activity on MCF7 cell line, 1000 µg/ml extract concentration showed 93.43% cytotoxicity and 6.57% of cell viability. Apoptotic induced was confirmed by formation of DNA ladders through DNA fragmentation assay. (65)
• Silver Nanoparticles / Antioxidant / Anti-Inflammatory / Fruit: Study reports on the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using fruit extract of L. acidissima for bio-reducing AgNO3 and stabilizing AgNPs. The AgNPs showed good antioxidant effectiveness compared to the fruit extract and ascorbic acid. The NPs evaluated against E. coli, S. typhi, V. cholera and S. aureus showed dose-dependent and strongest antibacterial activity against S aureus (12.03 mm) and least against V. cholera (9.09 mm). (66)
• Anthelmintic / Fruit Peel: Study evaluated methanolic and acetonic fruit peel extracts for anthelmintic activity against Paramphistomum cervi, using parameters of time of paralysis and time of death. The ME and AE at doses of 150 mg/ml showed significant anthelmintic effect with paralysis time of 19.6 and 24.4, and death time of 21.6 and 26.6 minutes, respectively, compared with standard albendazole with 13.4 and 18.4 minutes respectively. (68)
• Nootropic in Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of Limonia acidissima for nootropic activity in scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats. Piracetam was used as standard. The ME showed increased alteration of behavior response and percentage spontaneous alteration with Y-maze task. In the elevated plus maze scopolamine-induced amnesia model, there was a decrease in transfer latency, which is indicative of cognition improvement. The ME increased locomotor activity in rats and decreased the level of acetylcholinesterase enzyme significantly. Results suggest the ME enhances learning and memory in different experimental models. Study suggests potential of the extract in treatment of Alzheimer's disease. (69)
• Benzamides / NO Production Inhibitory Compounds / Bark: Study of bark isolated three new benzamide derivatives, together with 10 known compounds. Among the isolates, 13α,14β,17α-lanosta-7,9,24-triene-3β,16α-diol (8), 4-methoxy-1-methyl-2(1H)-quinolinone (10), and 13α,14β,17α-lanosta-7,24-diene-3β,11β,16α-triol (13) potently inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production in microglia cells. (see constituents above) (70)
• Neuro-Modulatory Properties in Thiopental-Sodium Sleep Model / Fruit Rind: Study evaluated the neurotherapeutic effects of bioactive components extracted in methanol and acetone fractions of L. acidissima fruit rind in Swiss albino mice. Administration of extracts significantly reduced the frequency of head dips during hole-board testing (p<0.001). Results suggest the fruit rind exhibited potent CNS functions of hypnotic and anti-depressant effects. (71)
• Cobalt and Copper Nanoparticles / Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Antidiabetic / Leaves: Study reports on the synthesis of cobalt and copper nanoparticles (NPs) using hot aqueous leaf extract of L. acidissima. The cobalt NPs exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against Gram(-), Gram(+) and Candida species. Copper NPs showed no antimicrobial activity. The copper NPs exhibited higher antioxidant and antidiabetic activity than the cobalt nanoparticles. (72)
• Relaxant Effects / Anti-Asthma / Pulp: Study evaluated the antiasthma activity of macerated and Soxhlet extracts of L. acidissima pulp on tracheal chains of guinea pigs. Results showed potent relaxant effect of fruit pulp of L. acidissima on tracheal chains, which was lower than theophylline at concentrations used. Phytoconstituents like flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, alkaloids, sterols, polyphenol and sterols in the ethanolic extract of pulp may be responsible for the bronchodilatory and antiasthmatic effect on tracheal chains of guinea pig. (73)
• Volatile Toxin / Larvicidal, Repellent, Adulticidal Toxicity Effects on Aedes aegypti: Study evaluated the acute toxicity from volatile toxin from Limonia acidissima (La-VOI) on mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Screening of La-VO showed five major bioactive compounds with a major peak estragole. LC50 was observed at 65.24 ppm. Sub-lethal dosage of La-VO resulted in significant changes in developmental times. Enzymatic profile of larvae post treatment showed upregulation of CYP450 and GST levels. Maximum repellent activity was noted at 75 ppm La-VO at 98% up to 210 minutes. Results showed La-VO has insecticidal and toxicity to mosquito. (74)
• Niloticin / Mosquitocidal / Effect on Immature Stages of Dengue Vector Ae. aegypti: Study evaluated the mosquitocidal activity of fractions and the compound niloticin isolated from a hexane extract of Limonia acidissima leaves on eggs, larvae, and pupae of Aedes aegypti. Among the fractions, F8 showed good mosquitocidal activity with LC50 and LC90 of 4.11 and 8.04 ppm against larvae and 4.19 and 8.10 ppm against pupae, respectively. Niloticin exhibited strong larvicidal and pupicidal activities, with 100% larvicidal and pupicidal activity at 2 ppm concentration in 24 h, with LC50 and LC90 of 0.44 and 1.17 ppm on larvae and 0.62 and 1.45 ppm on pupae. Niloticin showed 83.2% ovicidal activity at 2 ppm and significant growth disruption and morphological deformities at sub-lethal concentration. Results suggest potential for a natural mosquitocide. (75)
• Mosquito Larvicidal Activity / Effect on Larvae Immatures of Cx. quinquefasciatus / Leaves: Study evaluated the efficacy of leaf extract of L. acidissima as biocontrol agent against larval form of Culex quinquefasciatus. A 3% crude extract showed highest mortality rate of 90% among concentrations tested, and a 95% mortality in a chloroform:methanol extract at 100 ppm. IR and GC-MS analysis revealed a steroid compound, which may act as larvicide. (76)
• Insecticidal / Stem Bark: Study of powdered stem bark of L. acidissima showed insecticidal properties against the brunchid Callosobruchus chinensis. The major constituent of the stem bark was identified as bergapten. (77)
• Antihyperuricemic / Antioxidant / Fruit: Study evaluated extracts from macerated fruits of L. acidissima for antihyperuricemic activity against potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemic rats. Results showed serum uric acid lowering effect of L. acidissima fruit extract along with improved AST and ALT (p<0.01). At a dose of 4p00 mg, there was significant increase in BUN, suggesting renal toxicity of the concentration. The IC50 for DPPH inhibition was 0.14 mg/L with TPC and TFC of 143.9 mg GAE/g and 390.2 mg QE/g extract, respectively. (78)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Cultivated.
Seeds, plants in the cybermarket.
(amazon) (ebay) (Flipkart) (MedicinalLive) (EssentialOil) (AgriBegri)
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