 Gen info
- Avicennia is a genus of flowering plants currently in the bear's breeches family, Acanthaceae. They are commonly known as api api, which in Malay means "fires", referring to the fireflies that often congregate on these trees. They are characterized by "pencil roots", which are aerial roots. (3)
- The taxonomic placement is controversial. Some classifications have placed it in the Verbenaceae family, and more recently in Avicenniaceae. Recent studies have suggest Avicennia is derived from within Acanthaceae.(3)
- Avicennia alba is a species of tropical mangrove in the family Acanthaceae. It is found growing in coastal and estuarine locations in India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and Oceania.
- The genus name honors Persian physician Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 980-1037. (3)
- Etymology: In Malay language, it is known as api api puih: api meaning "fire", referring to the attraction of fireflies to this mangrove; and putih meaning "white", referring to the pale-colored underside of the leaves.
Botany
• A. alba forms a low, dense bushy crown often branching near the base of the trunk. The shrub does not grow more than about 20 m (66 ft) high. The roots are shallow and send up a large number of pencil-shaped pneumatophores. These aerial roots help with gas exchange and also play an important part in the exclusion of salt from the plant's vascular system. Trunk has smooth, greenish-black bark that is finely fissured and does not flake. Leaves are dark green, 15 cm (6 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) wide, with a silvery gray underside and grow in opposite pairs. Small, orange-yellow flowers, borne in a racemose inflorescence, have four petals and a diameter of about 4 mm (0.16 in) when expanded. Fruits are grayish-green capsules and conical in shape with an elongated beak up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long. Each contains a single seed. (3)
 • Growth form: Medium to large tree growing up to 20 m. Trunk: Smooth, brownish black bark. Roots: Extensive lateral root system stretching just below the soil surface with pencil-like breathing roots, also known as pneumatophores, sticking vertically out of the muddy ground to take in oxygen. Pneumatophores may grow up to a height of 15 - 20 cm. Foliage: Oblong to lanceolate pointed leaves, smooth, glossy-green above and very pale under, 15 by 5 cm. Upper surface is covered with many glandular dots, able to excrete salt due to presence of salt glands in the leaves. Flowers: Yellow to orange flowers measuring 3 - 4 mm across, and usually in 10 - 30 flowered clusters that are 1.5 - 3 cm long. Upper half of ovary is usually hairy. Fruit: Pale green in color, egg-shaped with a broad base and a pronounced beak, measuring up to 4 cm. All Avicennia spp. exhibits crytovivipary, in which the embryo germinates within the fruit but does not enlarge sufficiently to break through the fruit wall. (Flora & Fauna Web) (7)
Distribution
- Native to the
Philippines.
- Fairly common along muddy seashores and embankments of river deltas. (2)
- Also native to Bangladesh, Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, Caroline Is., India, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Is., Malaya, Marianas, Myanmar, New Guinea, Northern Territory, Solomon Is., Sulawesi, Sumatera, Thailand, Vietnam. (1)
- It grows on tidal riverbanks and on muddy portions of the seashore. A pioneering species, it is one of the first to colonise new ground. Its widespread root system with large number of pneumatophores helps stabilize new deposits of sediment. (3)
 Constituents
- Major phytocompounds are alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, tannins, and phenol compounds. It contains napthoquinolines, along with analogues avicequinone A, B, and C. Aerial parts contain lupeol, lupenone, beta-sitosterol, and stigmasterol. (4)
- Phytochemical screening
of acetone (A) and methanol (M) extracts of leaves revealed carbohydrates +, monosaccharides ++, free reducing sugars ++, tannins +. steroids ++, cardiac glycosides ++ terpenoids ++, flavonoids ++, alkaloids + (A), soluble starch + (A), with absence of reducing sugards, free anthraquinones, and saponins. Stems revealed carbohydrates ++, monosaccharides ++ (M), free reducing sugars ++ (M), combined reducing sugars ++ (A), tannins +, free anthraquinones + (M), steroids ++, cardiac glycosides + (M), terpenoids ++, saponins ++, flavonoids ++, soluble starch + (A), alkaloids ++. (see study below) (11)
- Study of methanol extract by column chromatography isolated three compounds: stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, and lupeol. (see study below) (13)
Properties
- It is an iconic tree of the mangrove forest. The leaves excrete salt due to the presence of salt glands. It develops pencil-like pneumatophores that protrude out of the soil allowing root respiration in the anaerobic muddy soil. (7)
-
Studies have suggested antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, phytoremediative, antipyretic, anticancer, anticoagulant, estrogenic, antifertility properties.
Parts used
Leaves, heartwood, resins, roots.
 Uses
Edibility
- Seeds are edible; boiled and eaten as vegetable. (3)
Folkloric
- No reported folkloric medicinal use in the Philippines.
- Extract from heartwood used as herbal tonic. Resin has been used in birth control
(3)
- In India, used for treatment of scabies, rheumatism, paralysis, asthma, snake bites, skin diseases, and ulcer. (4)
Others
- Wood: The timber does not make good firewood or charcoal, but is used for smoking of rubber and of fish. (3)
- Agroforestry: A. alba is a fast growing species and is sometimes planted, along with Sonneratia and Rhizophora, to help prevent coastal erosion. (3)
Studies
• Antidiabetic / Anti-Inflammatory / Analgesic / Antidiarrheal / Leaves: Study of evaluated methanol extract of leaves for antidiabetic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antidiarrheal activities in Swiss albino mouse model, using doses from 200 to 500 mg/kg. The leaf extract at 400 and 500 mg/kg showed potent antidiabetic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic mice and dose-dependent carrageenan paw edema-based anti-inflammatory activity. The 500 mg/kg dose demonstrated potent analgesic activity in both writhing test and hot plate method. Doses of 400 and 500 mg/kg showed significant anti-diarrheal activity. (5)
• Antidiarrheal / Antinociceptive / Leaves: Study evaluated a methanol extract of dried leaves for antidiarrheal and antinociceptive activities in animal models. The extract produced significant writhing inhibition in acetic acid-induced writhing in mice at oral dose of 500 mg/kbw (p<0.001)) comparable to standard diclofenac 25 mg/kbw. Extract showed considerable antidiarrheal activity on castor oil induced diarrhea in mice evidenced by increased mean latent period and decreased frequency of defecation at oral dose of of 500 mg/kbw comparable to Loperamide 50 mg/kbw. (8)
 • Antimicrobial / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the antimicrobial activity of aerial parts of Avicennia alba against resistant pathogens of aquatic, human, and plant origin. Zone of inhibition varied from 9 to 17. Methanol extract showed ZOI of 11 to 28 at 100 mg/ml concentration. Among tested organisms, Erwinia caratovara and Pseudomonas syringae showed considerable inhibition with chloroform and methanolic extracts. (9)
• Phytoremediation of Chromium / Roots: One of the inorganic pollutants that can be removed by mangrove are heavy metals, such as chromium. Study evaluated the potency of Cr. accumulation by Avicennia alba grown for 10 years at Wonorejo Ecotourism Mangrove Forest. Results showed Cr. accumulation by roots of A. alba reached 25.4 to 55.3. Avicennia alba showed potential as a moderate accumulator for Cr. Avicennia alba can be considered for use in phyto-monitoring and phytoremediation of Cr in coastal areas. (10)
• Antibacterial / Leaves and Stems: Study evaluated the antibacterial activity of leaf and stem extracts (hexane, benzene, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone and methanol) of Avicennia alba against eight Gram(+) and six Gram(-) bacterial strains. Of the six solvents, ethyl acetate and acetone extracts of leaf and stem, with a few exceptions, showed relatively high antibacterial activity. Benzene and chloroform extracts showed larger zones of inhibition against Salmonella enterica. Most of the solvent extracts of leaf and stem were effective on many tested bacteria than positive control. (see constituents above) (11)
• Analgesic / Antipyretic / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the analgesic and antipyretic activity of methanolic extract of A. alba aerial parts in rats, using extract doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. In brewer's yeast-induced fever, there was significant inhibition of elevated body temperature. There was significant increase in basal reaction time in radiant heat and tail immersion methods. Results suggest a potential source for natural analgesic and antipyretic agents. (12)
• Antioxidant / No Antituberculosis Activity / Aerial Parts: Study of methanol extract by column chromatography isolated three compounds: stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, and lupeol. The ME show potent free radical inhibition by DPPH assay, compared to standard ascorbic acid. Study showed no significant anti-tuberculosis effect compared with standard PZA, streptomycin, ciprofloxacin. (13)
• Antimicrobial / Aerial Parts: Methanolic extracts showed most active and significant inhibition against Gram(+) S. mutans with zone of inhibition of 27 mm, which causes dental caries in humans and found to be resistant to many antibacterial agents viz., penicillin, amoxicillin, cefuroxin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. (14)
• Anticancer Against HeLa and MCF-7 Cell Lines / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the effects of stem and leaf methanolic extracts of A. alba on human tumor cell lines HeLa and MCF-7. MTT assay using concentrations of 10, 20, 25, 30, and 50 µg) showed significant inhibitory effect compared with standard drug Cisplatin. The methanolic extract showed more activity against HeLa than MCF-7 cell lines. (15)
• Bioactive Compounds Against HeLa and MCF-7 Cell Lines / Leaves: GC-MS analysis focused on the identification of bioactive compounds in leave extract of A. alba and its cytotoxicity against MCF7 and HeLa cell lines. GC-MS yielded terpenoids, di-terpene alcohols, tri-terpenes, and phenolic compounds. The methanol extract showed potent cytotoxicity against human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7) and HeLa cell lines, vith viability of cancerous cells reduced to 44.68% and 35.89% respectively. Higher anticancer activity was found against HeLa cell line than MCF7 cell lines. (16)
• Potential Antiviral Against WDSV: WDSV (Walleye dermal sarcoma virus) is a type of retrovirus, which affects most of the adult walleye fishes during spawning time, causing multiple epithelial tumors on fish skin causing more than 50% mortality. Study evaluated A. alba for a potential natural antiviral compound, which can block th budding and virion maturation process by inhibition of the gag protein of the virus. Friedlein (CID244297), Phytosterols (CID12303662), and 1-Triacontanol (CID68972) are 3 of 11 compounds isolated from the plant and docked against the virus gag protein. Computational study showed potential of the three compounds against the targeted gag polyprotein and promising antiviral candidate. (17)
• Immunotherapeutic Efficacy Against Acute Inflammation / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the potential of ethanol extract (EE) of A. alba aerial parts as a safe and effective anti-inflammatory agent. Invitro haemolytic and anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using RBC membrane stabilizing and anti-protein denaturation assays. Invivo anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using acute inflammatory model by carrageenan-induced rat paw edema using Wistar rats. Acute toxicity study showed no toxicity effects with LD50 of more than 2000 mg/kg. The EE was effective in inhibiting heat-induced albumin denaturation and showed potential in vitro anti-inflammatory activity. The EE inhibited carrageenan induced rat paw edema at 200 and 400 mg/kg in a dose dependent manner. EE markedly inhibited NO, which may involve prevention of iNOS activity and implication in the suppression of PGs generation. The marked effect in attenuating experimental inflammatory reactions in rat may be due to the presence of tannins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds. (18)
• Anticancer Polyisoprenoids in WiDr Cells / Leaves: Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the world. Study evaluated the anticancer activity of polyisoprenoids from A. alba leaves (PAL) in WiDr cells. Anticancer activity of PAL was evaluated observing their activities against WiDr cells using MTT assay. PAL exhibited anticancer activity against WiDr cells with IC50 of 173.77 µg/mL. Cell cycle analysis showed inhibition at C0-G1 phase, and apoptosis in early apoptosis phase. PAL enabled suppression of COX-2 expression. PAL can be used as anticancer agents against WiDr colon cancer cells. (19) Study investigated the inhibitory activity of polyisoprenoids from leaves of mangrove plants Avicennia alba and Avicennia lanata regarding expression of P13K, Akt1, mTOR, P53, and EGFR genes against human colorectal adenocarcinoma WiDr cells. Cytotoxic activity against WiDr cells showed IC50 of 258.14 µg/mL for A. alba. Cell cycle inhibition for A. alba occurred in late phase of apoptosis S (10.60%) and G2-M1 (22.05%), higher than negative and positive control cells. The polyisoprenoids from the leaves exhibited anticancer activity in WiDr cells through downregulated gene expression of PI3K, Akt1, mTOR, and EGFR and upregulated gene expression of P53. Results suggest potential as a chemopreventive agent for colon cancer. (24)
• Anticoagulant / Leaves: Study evaluated the anticoagulant activity of 96% ethanol extract and fractions of mangrove leaves (A. alba) in human blood cells in vitro. Extract and fractions were tested invitro to five human blood samples, compared to heparin as positive control. Phytochemical screening of ethanol extract of leaves yielded alkaloids, tannin, saponin, flavonoids, suphated polysaccharide, and terpenoid. The ethanol extract and three fractions showed anticoagulant activity in vitro. Anticoagulant activity of the ethanol extract (1 mg/mL) was comparable to heparin (25 IU), which was better than the three fractions. (20)
• Squalene / Inhibition of of MNNG-Induced Gastric Cancer: Study evaluated the chemopreventive effects of Squalene compound from A. alba leaves on N-methyl-N-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)-induced gastric carcinogenesis (intragastrically) in albino rats. Squalene prolonged the survival of MNNG-induced cancer bearing animals and delayed the onset of tumor in animals administered with Squalene and MNNG simultaneously. Lipid peroxidation in the stomach tumor tissue was associated with enhanced antioxidant levels. Antioxidant effects were increased in the Squalene group and decreased in the MNNG group. Results suggest Squalene may have a beneficial effect on patients with gastric cancer. (21)
• Estrogenic Effect / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the estrogenic effect of methanolic extract (ME) of A. alba aerial parts, which has been identified as contraceptive in folklore recipes. Phytochemical screening of aerial parts showed presence of alkaloids, anthraquinone glycosides, flavonoids, steroids, and polyphenolics. ME at 400 mg/kbw showed significant (p<0.05) increase in uterine weight, diameter of uterus, thickness of endometrium and height of endometrial epithelium, and increase in vaginal cornification status. Histological exam of the uterus also showed estrogenic influence. The ME at 400 mg/kbw showed significant estrogenic activity, consistent with folkloric claims of oral contraceptive effect of Avicennia alba. (22)
• Antifertility / Anti-Implantation / Phytol: Study evaluated the antifertility activity of methanolic extract of Avicennia alba. The ME showed significant (p<0.05) 48.94%, 67.36%, and 85.76% anti-implantation activity at dose of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg respectively. The ME showed significant increase (p<0.05) in duration of diestrous phase and significant decrease (p<0.05) in duration of metaestrous phase as compared to control. The ME possesses antifertility activity due to presence of phytol, which justifies use of the plant for fertility control. (23)
• Silver Nanoparticles / Antibacterial / Leaves: Study reports on the green, eco-friendly, and cost-effective synthesis of silver nanoparticles using extract of A. alba leaves. The AgNPs showed significant zone of inhibition against majority of tested bacteria. Arthrobacter protophormiae and Proteus mirabilis showed two-fold sensitivity to the AgNPs than to positive control, streptomycin. Results showed broad spectrum of antibacterial activity and potential for alternative therapeutic use. (25)
Availability
- Wild-crafted. |
